Pakistan is a paradigm example of a failed state that has undergone an extremely dangerous form of radical Islamisation.
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
Akbar "The Great" [1542-1605], was one of the greatest rulers in Indian
history. He was born when Humayun and his first wife, Hamida Bano, were
fugitives escaping towards Iran. It was during these wanderings that Akbar was
born in Umerkot, Sindh, on November 23, 1542. Legend has it that Humayun
prophesied a bright future for his son, and thus accordingly, named him Akbar.
Akbar was raised in the rugged country of Afghanistan rather than amongst the
splendor of the Delhi court. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight
and never found time to read or write. He was the only great Mughal ruler who
was illiterate. Despite this, he had a great desire for knowledge. This led him
not only to maintain an extensive library but also to learn. Akbar had his books
read out to him by his courtiers. Therefore, even though unable to read, Akbar
was as knowledgeable as the most learned of scholars.
Akbar came to throne in 1556, after the death of his father, Humayun. At that
time, Akbar was only 13 years old. Akbar was the only Mughal king to ascend to
the throne without the customary war of succession; as his brother Muhammad
Hakim was too feeble to offer any resistance.
During the first five years of his rule, Akbar was assisted and advised by
Bahram Khan in running the affairs of the country. Bahram Khan was, however,
removed and for a few years Akbar ruled under the influence of his nurse Maham
Anga. After 1562, Akbar freed himself from external influences and ruled
supreme.
Akbar's Reign
Thanks to Akbar's exceptionally capable guardian, Bahram Khan, Akbar survived
his father's death at a young age to demonstrate his worth. Akbar's reign holds
a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the
foundations of the Mughal Empire.
Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a
conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.
Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great
administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the
foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India.
Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the
non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous
Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military
organization and civil administration.
Akbar was a great patron of architecture, art, and literature. His court was
rich in culture as well as wealth. In fact, his court was so splendid that the
British monarch, Queen Elizabeth I, once even sent out her ambassador, Sir
Thomas Roe, to meet the king! Many of Akbar's buildings still survive, including
the Red Fort at Agra, and the city of Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, which has a
10-km long wall encircling it.
It may come as a surprise for many that a great ruler like Akbar actually could
not read or write! And yet, he had a tremendous love for learning. During his
lifetime, Akbar collected thousands of beautifully written and illustrated
manuscripts. He also surrounded himself with writers, scholars, musicians,
painters, and translators. His court had the fabled Nine Gems - nine famous
personalities from different walks of life. These included music maestro Tansen
and intelligent statesman Birbal.
The reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance of Persian literature. The
Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 59 great Persian poets of Akbar's court. History
was the most important branch of Persian prose literature. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama
and Ain-i-Akbari were complementary works. Akbar and his successors, Jehangir
and Shah Jehan greatly contributed to the development of Indian music. Tansen
was the most accomplished musician of the age. Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of
36 first-rate musicians of Akbar's court where Hindu and Muslim style of music
mingled freely. The Mughal architectural style began as a definite movement
under his rule. Akbar's most ambitious and magnificent architectural undertaking
was the new capital city that he built on the ridge at Sikri near Agra. The city
was named as Fatehpur to commemorate Akbar's conquest of Gujrat in 1572. The
most impressive creation of this new capital is the grand Jamia Masjid. The
southern entrance to the Jamia Masjid is an impressive gateway known as Buland
Darwaza.
Like most other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive
gateway is of red sandstone that is decorated by carvings and discreet inlaying
of white marble. Of all the Mughals, Akbar's reign was the most peaceful and
powerful.
During his reign, Akbar managed to subdue almost all of India, with the
remaining areas becoming tributary states. Along with his military conquests, he
introduced a series of reforms to consolidate his power. Akbar practiced
tolerance aimed at Hindu-Muslim unification through the introduction of a new
religion known as Din-i-Ilahi. He won over the Hindus by naming them to
important military and civil positions, by conferring honors upon them, and by
marrying a Hindu princess.
He appointed nobles and mansabdars without any religious prejudice. Akbar's
religious innovations and policies, and deviation from Islamic dogma, have been
a source of debate and controversy. Akbar was a great patron of literary works
and scholars. His court had numerous scholars of the day who are well known as "Nauratan".
Akbar himself appointed important regional officers answerable to him. He was
able to set up a chain of informers, officials spied on their colleagues and
reported any misdeeds or suspicious behaviour back to the emperor. Army
commanders were given money with which to pay their soldiers and Akbar kept
detailed records of every man's name and description. Even the horses were
branded.
Akbar also introduced a new and fairer system of taxation based on carefully
estimated tables of crop yields. Tax collectors had their own district tables
and used them to work out how much grain the farmers should contribute. This
contribution was then converted into its cash value, district by district,
because food prices varied in different parts of the empire.
Akbar had three sons Prince Salim, Murad and Daniyal. Prince Murad and Daniyal
died in their prime during their father's lifetime. However, Akbar faced
problems with Prince Salim and the last four years of Akbar's life were consumed
in crushing Salim's rebellion. Akbar fell ill and died of slow poisoning on
October 27, 1605. With him ended the most glorious epoch in Indian history.
