Pakistan is a paradigm example of a failed state that has undergone an extremely dangerous form of radical Islamisation.
Pindari
Of uncertain origin, the term `Pindari' described a type of irregular light
horse-cum-bandit which flourished in central India in the late l8th and early
l9th centuries, originating with the break-up of the Mogul armies. Of no one
race, tribe or religion, they included any to whom the prospect of lawlessness
appealed, including Marathas, Afghans and Jats; generally organised in loose
bands led by chieftains, they sometimes served the Maratha states, receiving no
wage but even paying for the prospect of loot and plunder. They congregated in
Malwa, with the tacit approval of Sindhia and Holkar, from where they set out,
usually in November, to plunder throughout Hindustan, into British territory and
even to the Coromandel coast. The most powerful chieftain, Amir Khan, had
regularly organised regiments, estimated at 12,000 light horse, 10,000 infantry
and an estimated artillery train of between 80 and 200 guns; to which other
Pindari bands added a further 15,000 cavalry, 1,500 infantry and 20 guns.
By 1817 the ravages of these bandits had become intolerable, so the Governor
General (and Commander in-Chief), the Earl of Moira (later Marquess HASTINGS)
determined to crush them; but the renewed hostility of the Maratha powers turned
what began as a drive against freebooters into a war against the peshwa, Indore,
and the Bhonsla raja of Nagpore. (Jaswant Rao Holkar of Indore had died in 1811,
and in the minority of his successor, his favourite mistress became regent; she
was murdered by the Indore military commanders in 1817 who committed their
forces to the peshwa when hostilities began). To combat this menace, the
Governor General formed two armies, taking personal command of the Grand Army
which assembled at Cawnpore in four divisions, each of two infantry and a
cavalry brigade; and General Sir Thomas Hislop's Army of the Deccan, seven
divisions strong. Troops from all three presidencies were involved.
Two of the possible foes provided little opposition; Sindhia was pressured
into neutrality, and by signing the Treaty of Gwalior agreed to take action
against the Pindaris, whom he had been protecting; and the Pindaris themselves
did not pose the predicted threat. Amir Khan accepted conditions imposed by the
British and disbanded his forces, in return for a territorial settlement which
became the state of Tonk in Rajputana; the remaining Pindari forces were
attacked and dispersed, one of their principal leaders, Karim, surrendering, and
another, Chitu, fled to the jungles where he was killed by a tiger.
Marathas finally crushed
More serious was the reaction of the other Marathas, whose simmering
discontent turned into open war in November 1817. As Peshwa Baji Rao II
assembled his forces, the commander of the British units at Poona, Colonel C. B.
BURR, withdrew from the cantonments with the Resident, and concentrated on a
ridge at Kirkee. The residency at Poona was burned, and on 5 November 1817 the
Peshwa's army moved to attack the position at Kirkee; their strength was
estimated as up to 18,000 cavalry, 8,000 infantry and fourteen guns, against
which Burr had five Bombay sepoy battalions and an auxiliary battalion, about
2,000 strong, and 800 Europeans (Bombay Europeans and a detachment of 65th
Foot). Burr attacked immediately and the Marathas bolted, the Peshwa's entire
force being routed for the loss of nineteen dead and 67 wounded, only two of
these casualties falling upon BURR's European troops. General Lionel SMITH
arrived to reinforce BURR on the l3th, and on 17 November another action was
fought at Poona, which completed the defeat of the Peshwa's army.
At Nagpore the Bhonsla mustered his forces, ostensibly for a drive against
the Pindaris, but turned against the British when news was received of the
Peshwa's revolt. The British force at Nagpore was only about 1,300 strong,
comprising three troops of 6th Bengal Cavalry, the 1/20th and 1/24th Madras
Native Infantry, and some auxiliaries, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel H. S.
SCOTT. Like BURR, Scott withdrew from the cantonments to a defensible position;
at Seetabuldee on 26 November 18,000 men of the Nagpore army, including some
3,000 Arabs employed by the Bhonsla, attacked him. After a fight of some
eighteen hours the Nagpore army withdrew, Scott's force having sustained 367
casualties, testimony to the determination with which sepoy units could fight,
even without European support. On 12 December relief arrived in the form of
Brigadier-General J. Doveton's 2nd Division of the Army of the Deccan, which
assaulted Nagpore on 16 December. After several hours' fighting the
21,000-strong Nagpore army was routed, some thousands withdrawing into the city,
where they capitulated on 24 December after several days of bombardment.
Despite the defeat at Poona, the Peshwa's army was still in being and, about
28,000 strong on New Years Day 1818 fell upon a British detachment at Coiygaum.
Commanded by Captain STAUNTON of the 21st Bombay Native Infantry, this comprised
only about 600 of his own battalion, two Madras Artillery 6pdrs and 300
auxiliary horse. Staunton occupied that part of Corygaum village not held by the
enemy, and a house-to-house fight raged from noon until 9 p.m. This remarkable
defence, in which only Staunton and two other officers remained unscathed,
resisted all efforts of the Peshwa's army, which retired and broke up upon news
of the approach of General Lionel Smith. Concerning the exertions of the British
officers (even two assistant-surgeons, one of whom was killed, had led
bayonet-charges throughout the day), Smith described their efforts as `almost
unparalleled ... in such a struggle the presence of a single European was of the
utmost consequence, and seemed to inspire the native soldiers with the usual
confidence of success'; but this action, coming at the end of a 28-mile march,
reflected equal credit upon the sepoys as upon their leaders.
After vainly attempting to negotiate to prevent the state becoming hostile,
Sir Thomas Hislop engaged the army of Indore at Mahidpore on 23 December 1817.
The Indore forces mustered some 30,000 light horse, 5,000 infantry and 100 guns;
Hislop's 5,500-strong 1st and 3rd Divisions of the Army of the Deccan included
few Europeans, only the flank companies of the lst Foot and Madras Europeans.
Because of the disparity in numbers, Hislop attacked immediately; the Maratha
horse fled, but the infantry and gunners (trained in European style) made a
gallant stand until they were overthrown. Hislop lost 174 killed, 614 wounded
and three missing. Mahidpore virtually ended the war, as peace was concluded
with Indore shortly after. Following a chase, Baji Rao II surrendered to Sir
John MALCOLM in May 1818, and was sent as a state pensioner to Bithur, near
Cawnpore, devoid of power or influence; his heir, Nana Sahib, would become
infamous forty years later. An infant was recognised as raja of Nagpore, under
British guardianship, and when the Bhonsla died without direct heirs in 1853,
his territory was annexed. The war finally ended the power of the Maratha
states, although Gwalior was still not completely negated as an opponent.
